(1)

INTRODUCTION

1. Before one can understand the potentialities of the Japanese as a soldier and his behaviour in battle it is essential to consider the environment in which he has spent his whole life.  Although this is true to a certain extent when assessing the fighting value of any nation it is of vital importance in the case

Good. of the JAPANESE since their tradition and upbringing is quite unlike that of any other nation.  In this paper, therefore, it is proposed to consider first the factors which produce the Japanese psychology and characteristics, then to summarise those characteristics and finally to consider the actual tactical methods they employ in attack, defence and patrolling. 

CHARACTERISTICS AND PSYCHOLOGY.

• The four factors which probably play the greatest part in moulding the character of any nation are:-
• The nation’s historical past
• The nation’s religious past.
• The nation’s educational system and
• The nation’s way of life.

We will therefore consider how each of these factors influences the Japanese youth from the cradle and see how, unlike the German who has little more than a decade to assimilate the Nazi doctrine, he has a similar doctrine inculcated into him through the tradition of centuries.

• The historical past. 

The Japanese consider that their Empire was founded in 660 B.C. when a grandson of the Sun Goddess came down to earth to rule over them.  From that day forward the Japanese have always been ruled by a direct descendant of this first God – Emperor.  Consequently it follows that this Emperor is a God and all his people sons of the Gods.

(2)       [From this belief springs a tremendous pride in their country – this “Land of [the Gods” – a pride that is enhanced by the fact that throughout the whole of [her history her soil has never been sullied by the foot of an invader.  Save [only once, in the thirteenth centaury, when the invader was crushingly [defeated and expelled forever from her shores.  A sure sign, if one were [needed, of the invincibility of these demi-gods.

In 1638 a law was enacted in Japan which has undoubtedly had great influence on the moulding of the Japanese character.  The effect of this law was to isolate Japan from the rest of the world for 215 years.  No Japanese was allowed to leave Japan nor even to build a ship capable of taking him to the mainland.  Every foreigner was expelled or exterminated.  It is interesting to note the irony of the fact that it was an American, Commander Perry, who ended this isolation in 1854.

One result of this isolation has been that the Japanese have a very acute sense of racial purity, a feeling of exclusiveness and superiority over all persons or things foreign.  Another that until ninety years ago Japan was a feudal state ruled by Shoguns each with his armed following of Samurai.  Since at that time the Emperor was little more than a monk, all the power being wielded by the Shoguns.  Civil war was endemic.  Consequently the Samurai, who were the only class of commoners allowed to carry arms, were regarded as a class far above any other walk of life.  As a result of this warrior tradition it is today regarded as a great honour to be allowed to serve the Emperor in his army.  The day that a recruit joins the army is probably the greatest of his life for on that day in his own eyes he becomes a Samurai, a member of a privileged class.

Since rule in Japan has always been exercised by the possession of the greatest powers it is natural to find that the Army and Navy have played a very important part in the government of modern Japan and influenced the whole nation.  A factor which has increased the prestige of the Army and confirmed their belief in their invincibility is the number of successful wars and lucrative conquests which Japan has made since the restoration.

In brief the lessons of Japan’s history may be said to be that she is a nation of demi-gods, ruled by a God, a chosen people of invincible warriors, socially pure whose destiny it is to rule the world; a world of inferior beings.

• The religious past. 

It has been said all religions are equally true to the people, equally false to the philosopher and equally useful to the Government, and of no religion is this more true than of Shintoism, the national religion of Japan.  It is the perfect religion for any fascist state and indeed the doctrine taught by Hitler bears many similarities to it.

The principal tenets are:-

• The divinity of the Emperor who is the only God.
• Worship of ancestors.
• Blind obedience to superiors.

While this suppresses individuality it produces docile and obedient soldiers for his superior officers are exercising power delegated by his God.

Another vitally important aspect of Shintoism is its teaching as regards death.  Loss of life is not regarded by the Japanese as a sacrifice; it is merely the last act which that life serves.  The criterion therefore is that one’s death should serve a useful purpose and be a fitting gesture to close one’s life.  How better then, than to die in battle for one’s Emperor?  Besides, one will then go straight to a warrior’s paradise.

• The educational system. 

The Japanese compulsory educational system is thorough.  There are only about five percent illiterates in Japan.

The system is run on good sound fascist lines designed to turn out a standard product drenched in the old warlike traditions and full of the knowledge of the invincibility of the Japanese and of their divine mission in life.  To this end retired Army and Navy officers are on the staffs of all Schools.  Dangerous ^? thoughts are not tolerated and every effort is made to stamp out individualism.  The competitive spirit is not encouraged for everyone is naturally doing his best for his Emperor.  The system succeeds and produces stereotyped products lacking in originality or initiative but convinced of their divine mission.

As with the fascists, patriotism is extolled as a virtue of the highest order and practically any crime is excusable so long as it is committed in the name of patriotism.

• The Way of Life. 

About eighty per cent of Japanese soldiers are recruited from peasants who normally lead a very frugal and penurious existence.  Campaigning is to them therefore little more rigorous than their normal life and living on short rations no uncommon hardship.  Generally the way of life is much as it was over two centuries ago.

• Summary of Characteristics. 

To summarise the characteristics and outlook which this environment has produced it can be said that the Japanese:-

• Regard themselves as:-
• Demi-gods fortunate in being the only people in the world ruled by a God.
• A chosen people whose mission it is to rule the world.  Thus any aggressive war is to them a jihad. ?
• Invincible in battle.
• Regard war as a natural and desirable state.
• Are greatly honoured to be allowed to die for the Emperor in battle.
• Are  frugal and hardy.

• Assessment of the Individual Soldier. 

The above characteristics suggest that the Japanese would make excellent, fanatical and brave soldiers.  To a great extent this is true.  There are however three factors of which sight should not be entirely lost:-

• Morale based on a false doctrine of invincibility is unlikely to stand up well to a succession of defeats.  Already there is evidence of individuals grousing at allied superiority of equipment and the morale of some units has been badly shaken by defeat.
• Some Japanese, though admittedly few, do kick against their upbringing and think perhaps there is more future in being a live coward than a dead hero.  Thus some are now less anxious to avoid capture or to commit hara-kiri when captured.

(3)      (c) Japanese education has produced a stereotyped mind which is not good at  

improvisation when things go wrong or of thinking up new ideas.  He is essentially a  copycat.

TACTICAL METHODS

• General Tactical Characteristics. 

In general principles Japanese tactics vary very little from those of any other civilized nation.  Greatest stress is probably laid on the following three principles:-

• Mobility. 

As an example of the importance which the Japanese have always attached to mobility in their military teaching an American observer was present at some manoeuvres in Japan some years before the war.  In the narrative a Japanese column and an enemy column were depicted as starting at the same time and equidistant from some vital high ground yet the Japanese column was allowed to arrive and take the ground before the enemy column arrived.  When the American suggested that this was an unfair and unreal picture he was curtly told that given equal conditions the Japanese would always arrive first.  The success which the Japanese achieved with mobility at the beginning of the war showed that the above confidence was justified and has given them no cause to modify their doctrine.

• Deception. 

The importance attached to deception has been more than amply illustrated during the war by the innumerable ruses employed by the Japanese to create a false impression.  Examples include excellent camouflage of all field works, employment of fifth column, shouting of false orders in English, movement through “impenetrable” jungle and the extensive use of noise to create a false impression of the number of troops employed.

• Offensive Action. 

The doctrine of offensive action is entirely in keeping with the Japanese character, and indeed it must be a basic doctrine of any successful army.  As an example of the offensive spirit may be quoted the action of the remnants of the garrison of a Japanese held island.  An American raiding party had attacked the island and having fulfilled their mission and practically annihilated the garrison were withdrawing from the island when

(4)             they were attacked by about a dozen of the garrison who could still carry arms.

1. Defensive Tactics.
2. Generally.

The idea of being on the defensive is extremely odious to the Japanese and consequently their defensive tactics are essentially offensive and mobile.  They may resign themselves to being held frontally but they will develop threats to the flanks of superior forces opposing them.

• Choice and Organization of Position.

A study of Japanese defensive positions has disclosed the following common features:-

• Where possible one or both flanks rest on a natural obstacle.
• Positions chosen whenever possible include a natural tank obstacle or a hole which can be made into one with little labour.
• High ground is invariably strongly held no matter how obvious and prominent it may be.
• Swampy ground is not an obstacle to the choice of a position.  If they cannot dig down they build up.
• If his forces permit a Japanese commander occupies a position in depth.  If they do not permit he will sacrifice depth rather than frontage.
• Similarly all round defence is adopted where possible but may be forgone.  Good.
• Alternative positions are dug.

• Conduct of the Defence.
• Surprise is achieved by silence and concealment.  It is almost impossible to draw fire from a Japanese position until the attack is actually launched.  When fire is finally opened machine guns may be firing on fixed lines as little as ten yards in front of Japanese FDLs.
• Overhead cover is provided wherever possible.  The Japanese will then bring down mortar fire onto his own positions when they are assaulted.
• The Japanese launch immediate counter attacks against troops who have captured part of a locality.  These attacks may be mounted within five or ten minutes.
• Defence is to the last man and last round.

(5)

1. Offensive Tactics. 

As is to be expected whenever possible the Japanese exploit their mobility to the full during the attack.  Particularly is this so when pursuing a withdrawing enemy, as in the first Burma campaign.  Wide enveloping movements were made bypassing our forward troops and seizing ground in the rear.  This left us with the alternatives of attacking him on ground of his choosing or withdrawing.

In other respects Japanese tactics in the attack are very similar to our own.  Attack is preceded by careful reconnaissance which tries to find the position of all enemy weapons.  It used to be preferred to develop the main attack round one or both flanks whilst holding the enemy frontally.  Now frontal attacks are becoming increasingly popular and repeated attacks may be launched against the same objective in massed formation.  He gains what success he achieves by the application of the principles of maintenance of objective and concentration of effort.

Whereas previously his artillery preparation used to be quite inadequate he is now using far more, usually in the form of long periods of slow fire rather than heavy concentrations immediately preceding an attack.

He uses tanks boldly in close cooperation with infantry, and makes excellent use of hull down positions.  He often moves his tanks into position by night and has them camouflaged before first light.

Since he is slow to follow a withdrawal it is usually simple to break contact though with his great mobility he may regain contact quicker than expected.

1. Patrolling. 

The Japanese have used patrols extensively during this war for a variety of tasks.  They are generally lightly equipped armed with light automatics and grenades and are usually not more than a few dozen men in strength.  They may carry enough food to operate for several days.

During an advance patrols are frequently used to infiltrate and then to open heavy fire and use fireworks to try to persuade forward troops that they are surrounded so that they withdraw prematurely.  They may be used in a similar role when the Japanese are on the defensive in order to lower the morale of opposing troops and make them jittery.  A patrol on such a task may consist of only two snipers.

Fighting patrols may be sent out with explosives to try to wreck guns in our artillery areas.

Reconnaissance patrols are employed in the normal way.

Patrols generally move quietly and are well trained but they are on occasion careless and may afford us an opportunity to surprise them.

1. Conclusion. 

Although the Japanese has absorbed a military outlook through centuries of tradition and is generally a brave, ruthless, fanatical soldier his fanaticism and morale are built on a foundation of sand.  Now that the weakness of this foundation are being exposed small cracks are appearing in the main structure.  His tactics are neither new nor unexpected.

We have in fact a soldier not unlike the Nazi bully but less well equipped.  We, in this Division have already proved our ability to defeat the Nazis:  We shall shortly prove our ability to defeat the Japanese.

(6)

XXXX

Signature

Postkarte                                                                   Stamp Mil Luftpost Par Avion

                                                                                    Stamp GEPRUFT 22

                                                                                    Stamp. Postmark date 21.6.44.

An                   Mrs. E. Wilkinson                            Stamp PASSED P.W. 5858

Gebuhrenfrei!

                        Empfangsort: Little Lever Nr BOLTON

                        Strasse:          84 Settle Street

                        Land;              LANCASHIRE ENGLAND.

Absender:

Vor-und Zuname:

Ernest Wilkinson Sgt.

Gefangennummer: 211329

Lager-Bezeichnung

DULAG-LUFT

Deutschland (Germany)

Kriegsgefangenenlager.                                                                             Datum: 10.6.44

Dearest.  Alive and well.  I hope you are alright.  I am a prisoner of war.  Will write letter from permanent address.  My regards to all.  Give my love to your mother.  All my love darling.  Yours ever.  Ernest.

R.A.F. Station,

Tempsford, Sandy

Beds.

14^th August 1944

Dear Mrs Wilkinson,

            Your letter, just received, brought good news indeed.  We had heard unofficially that all was well, but the story was unconfirmed and I deemed it better not to write unless I was absolutely certain.

            Anyway, it is good news and I am voicing the feeling of the many in the squadrons when I say they will want to share your good news.  Please do not assume that as soon as a man is missing that his name is never mentioned again, for they are often discussed, and the hope expressed that they are safe and well and at the worst prisoners.  It will not be for long now and let us hope it will be over by Christmas, as well it might be.         

            My renewed good wishes,

Sincerely Yours

G.J. Holdcroft

S/Ldr.

F/O Clark & F/O Carson, pilot & navigator, are also safe & a 4^th whose name I haven’t had yet.

That makes 4 out of the crew.

G.J.H.

Telephone No. GERRARD 9234

Extn 3801.

AIR MINISTRY,

(Casualty Branch)

73-77 Oxford Street

W.1.

14^th August 1944.

P.415526/44/P.4.Cas.B.4.

Sir/Madam,

            I am directed to refer to your letter of the 11^th August 1944 and to thank you for in information contained therein relative to SERGEANT ERNEST WILKINSON.

            I am to inform you that the International Red Cross Committee now also report your HUSBAND’S capture, and action is being taken officially to reclassify him as a prisoner of war.

            A pamphlet and handbook regarding communications with prisoners of war are enclosed as they may be of service to you.

I am, Sir/Madam,

Your obedient Servant,

Signature unreadable

for Director of Personal Services.

Mrs. E. Wilkinson,

1068 Bury Road,

Breightmet,

Bolton,

Lancashire.

Students on 2 Aug                          

      INDEX 1.                                  10^th Long Course.

STAFF COLLEGE QUETTA.

1944.

INDOOR EXERCISE – JAPANESE IN BATTLE.

1. Object of Exercise. 

To study:-

• The characteristic and psychology of the JAPANESE soldier.

• JAPANESE tactical methods in certain ops of war.

• Conduct of Exercise.
• The exercise will take place on 16 Aug.  Index I is issued to you 2 Aug as there is much preliminary work to be done in your own time.

• This preliminary work consists of preparing yourself to write a short paper summarising the main pts of the characteristics and psychology of the JAPANESE soldier, and of JAPANESE tactical methods.  This entails the reading of manuals and pamphlets which have been issued to you, particularly “JAPANESE in Battle Part 1” and relevant paras of WIC’s, G series, and the studying of other documents on the Int room.

• A lecture on the JAPANESE Army on 11 Aug will give you some further ideas, and some of you are fortunate enough to be able to call on your own experience.

• The special Requirement (Index 2) will be issued to you on 16 Aug.  You will NOT be asked to consider JAPANESE methods in combined ops.

• There will be no conference on the exercise but DS will make notes on your work and a suggested solution will be issued to you.  In addition, the subject will, of course, be referred to continually throughout the course.

J.F.W.

Jul 44

STUDENT     P. W. DANIELL

EXERCISE    INT/10/L  JAPANESE IN BATTLE

D.S.                Lt. COL R.E. LONG

Telephone No.

COLNBROOK 231/3

Central Depositary,

Royal Air Force,

COLNBROOK

Slough,

Bucks.

CD/F.48483

1^st August 1944.

2211329 Sgt. Wilkinson. E.

Dear Madam,

In accordance with Air Ministry instructions the personal effects of the above named as enumerated on the enclosed inventory, have been despatched to you by registered post.

When the effects reach you, kindly sign and return the inventory for which purpose a pre-paid addressed label is enclosed herewith.

Yours faithfully

Signature unreadable

for Squadron Leader, Commanding,

R.A.F. Central Depository.

Mrs. E. Wilkinson,

1068 Bury Road,

Breightmet,

Bolton,

Lancs.

August 1944

(Britain)

   The American Liberty ship SS Richard Montgomery was anchored in the Thames estuary in August 1944 while waiting the formation of a convoy to travel to Cherbourg in Normandy.The Richard Montgomery had arrived off Southend on the 27^th July 1944 loaded with 6,127 tons of munitions. On the 20^th August 1944 the ship dragged her anchor and ran aground near the Medway Approach Channel. As the tide receded the ship broke her back on a sandbank near the Isle of Sheppey. On the 23^rd August 1944 removal of the cargo began. The ship’s hull cracked open the following day allowing several holds to flood. On the 25^th September 1944, the unloading was abandoned after the ship broke into two separate parts. Currently, after 80 years of laying on the seabed, the ship is constantly under surveillance whilst approximately 1,400 tons of unexploded ordinance remains on board.

(France – Normandy)

Following the successful D-Day landings the ancient city of Bayeux was the first city to be liberated by British troops in June 1944. The Allies had liberated the city of Caen and the deep-water Port of Cherbourg by the end of July 1944. The Allies began their break-out by early August 1944 and reached the German defended town of Falaise. They formed the Falaise Pocket, which had completely surrounded the town,and by the 14^th August 1944 they failed to close the pocket. The pocket was finally closed on the 21^st August 1944, resulting in the destruction of most of the German defenders west of the River Seine. This opened up the way to Paris and the Franco-German border. With the Allies approaching Paris an uprising erupted in the city on the 19^th August 1944. The key to the uprising was a resistance against Nazi control of the city, as called for by the French Resistance leaders. The Parisian people’s determination to free themselves of German control resulted in barricades being erected in the streets together with Resistance fighters facing the occupiers. With American General George S. Patton’s Third Army approaching Paris, German Fuhrer Adolf Hitler ordered the destruction of the city on the 22^nd August 1944. Despite efforts to implement the order Paris was liberated on the 25^th August 1944, when the German garrison commander surrendered to the French. On the same day, Charles de Gaule, President of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, moved into the War Ministry and broadcast a speech to the nation. He claimed Paris had liberated itself with the help from French forces. He deliberately down-played the part the American troops had played and also dismissed the Vichy establishment as a false France. The following day, 26^th August 1944, de Gaule and the Free French began their Victory Parade. They started at the Arc de Triumphe and marched along the Champs-Èlysées. With Paris liberated and the Allies having joined forces, the Germans fought fierce delaying tactics. By the 29^th August 1944 the Germans had retreated to the River Seine, and withdrew over the river the next day, the 30^th August 1944. On the afternoon of the same day the 3^rd Canadian Infantry Division crossed the Seine and entered Rouen, to a jubilant welcome, and Operation Overlord had ended. The advance east toward the Franco-German border was about to begin.

(Southern France)

On the 15^th August 1944 Operation Dragon began which was the code name for the Allied invasion of Provence in southern France. Originally Operation Dragon was planned to coincide with Operation Overlord in Normandy during June 1944. This operation was cancelled owing to lack of supplies for both operations. The Allies agreed that Operation Dragon should proceed in August 1944. The delay enabled the French Liberation Army to assemble and participate. The invasion was planned to secure the ports of Marseille and Toulon on the French Mediterranean coast and opening up another front.  To achieve this the American and French forces landed on the beaches of the Cote d’Azur and encountered a weakened German defensive system. Many defenders had been relocated to other fronts and the replacements were third-rate soldiers kitted with obsolete equipment. The landings were very successful, with German resistance low. The German defenders of the beaches very quickly surrendered. The German defenders on the extreme southern coast of Vichy-France realised they could not halt the Allied advance. They were ordered to retreat to the French-Italian Alps. By the 28^th August 1944 the Allies had surrounded Toulon and Marseille. The two ports were liberated after the defenders had surrendered.

(Germany)

The 20 July Plot, Operation Valkyrie, to assassinate Fuhrer Adolf Hitler failed. Four of the leaders of the conspiracy were immediately courts martialled and sentenced to death. The executions were carried out at 1.00 am on the 21^st July 1.944. On the 7^th August 1944 the first trial was conducted. The outcome was that 4,980 plotters and associates were found guilty and on Hitler’s order were “hanged like cattle” on the 8^th August 1944.

(Italy)

With the liberation of Rome in early June 1944, the Allies began their advance toward northern Italy. On the 4^th August 1944, Florence was liberated and by the 15^th August 1944 the Allies were closing up on the “Gothic Line”. The “Gothic Line” was the last major German defensive line and ran from the west coast of Italy, north of Pisa, along the Apennine Mountains to the Adriatic coast just south of Rimini. On the 25^th August 1944 the “Gothic Line” was penetrated but there was no decisive break-through until later in the war.

(Eastern Front)

In Poland, the Warsaw Uprising was major Polish underground resistance operation to liberate Warsaw from German occupation. The uprising began on the 1^st August 1944, its objective was to drive the Germans out of Warsaw. The uprising was an attempt to assist the Allies in defeating Germany. However, it was 63 days later in October 1944 the uprising ended with a German victory.  In the meantime the German Waffen SS ordered that between 40,000 and 50,000 Poles be systematically murdered. The Wola massacre began on the 5^th August 1944 in the neighbourhood of Warsaw in an attempt to stop the Warsaw Uprising.  When the massacre ended on the 12^th August 1944 the Germans had anticipated the massacre would crush the uprising but it only stiffened Polish resistance. The Red Army continued their advance through Poland towards Germany.

(Pacific)

In New South Wales, Australia, Cowra was the nearest town to N^o 12 Prisoner of War Camp. On the 5^th August 1944, the Cowra Break-out occurred when 1,104 Japanese prisoners of war attempted to escape. It was the bloodiest and largest POW escape of the 2^nd World War. Ten Australian soldiers were killed and 231 Japanese soldiers were either killed or committed suicide during the escape and subsequent manhunt. The remaining escaped prisoners were recaptured within ten days of the break-out.

In the Pacific the American war against Japan was gathering pace. On the 1^st August 1944 U.S. Marines completed the capture of the Mariana Island of Tinian.  On the 9^th August 1944 General Douglas M^cArthur’s plan to invade the Philippines was chosen by President Franklin D Roosevelt over Admiral Chester Nimitz’s plan to invade Taiwan. All of the Mariana Islands were in American hands after the Second Battle of Guam ended on the 10^th August 1944. Also on the 10^th August 1944, 54 B-29 USAAF bombers attacked the Japanese refinery at Palembang in Dutch East Indies. The bombing was at night and with overcast conditions it was difficult to assess the damage. However, mines were dropped in the river connecting Palembang to the sea. It took the Japanese nearly a month to sweep the mines and open up maritime traffic which held up petroleum exports.

(Other Areas)

In the U.S. Capital, Washington, D.C., delegates assembled for an international conference for peace and security which was to become the United Nations. The Dumbarton Oaks Conference was held from the 21^st August to the 7^th October 1944. The conference was led by the “Four Policemen” – the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and China.  The Dumbarton Oaks Conference recognised the need for an organisation to maintain post-war peace and security in the world. A tentative set of proposals were agreed by the delegates to meet these proposals on the 7^th October 1944.

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