November 1943

(Britain)

When the Second World War began in 1939, bombing was a major factor in both the Allied and Axis Powers development. Originally bombing attacks on both sides were against military targets, factories, ports and railways. To avoid civilian casualties the British government renounced the deliberate bombing of civilian property outside the combat zone. Following the German air attack on Rotterdam in May 1940 the Royal Air Force (RAF) was given permission to bomb the Ruhr Valley. With the development of British bombers, gradually the bombing of military targets was extended in favour of area bombing of Germany. The head of RAF Bomber Command, Sir Arthur Harris, launched the Battle of Berlin in November 1943. As well as RAF Bomber Command, Harris had at his disposal the U.S. Army Air Forces’ Eighth Air Force (USAAF). He believed in area bombing with his now famous saying. “The Nazis entered this war under the childish delusion they would bomb everywhere else and nobody was going to bomb them. At Rotterdam, London, Warsaw and half a hundred other places, they put their naïve theory into operation. They sowed the wind, and now they are going to reap the whirlwind”. On the night of the 18^th November 1943, 440 Avro Lancaster and four de Havilland Mosquito bombers attacked the city. Diversionary raids on Mannheim and Ludugshafen by 395 other aircraft were carried out at the same time along with five Mosquitoes attacking several other towns. A total of 884 aircraft were involved in the raids of which 32 were lost (3.6%). The most successful raid on Berlin, during the whole course of the war, was on the night of the 22^nd November 1943. A total of 764 aircraft, consisting of 469 Lancasters, 234 Handley Page Halifaxes, 50 Short Sterlings and 11 Mosquitoes were involved in the raid. Most of the damage was to the residential areas west of the city. Dry weather conditions helped the ignition of several “firestorms”. Several buildings of note, including Kaiser-Wilhelm Memorial Church, were either damaged or destroyed and over 175,000 people were left homeless. Bomber Command lost 26 aircraft (3.4%). Berlin on the 23^rd November1943 was again attacked by 383 aircraft, comprising of 365 Lancasters, 10 Halifaxes and 8 Mosquitoes. The next two nights, 24^th & 25^th November 1943, Berlin was attacked by nine Mosquitoes, of which six attacked on the 24^th and losing one aircraft. On the 25^th, 3 Mosquitoes attacked the city and all returned home safely. On the night of the 26^th November 1943, 443 Lancasters and seven Mosquitoes attacked the semi-industrial suburb of Reinickendorf. Including a diversionary raid on Stuttgart a total of 666 aircraft attacked Germany and RAF lost 34 aircraft (5.1 %). The RAF bombing of Berlin continued until March 1944.

(Eastern Front – Poland)

On the 3^rd November 1943, in German occupied Poland, mass murder was committed against Jews. Code-named Operation Harvest Festival (Akton Erntefest) the murders occurred in the concentration camps of Majdanek, Trawniki and Poniatowa. Reichsführer Heinrich Himmler was one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany and firmly believed in the Holocaust. He ordered the murders to  be carried out.  The reason for the murders are unknown, but generally accepted as being reprisal for the uprising at the Sobibor Extermination Camp on the 14^th October 1943. Jewish inmates of the three camps were ordered to dig zig-zag trenches along each perimeter. Many guessed the real purpose, rather than the story they were told, that the trenches were for the additional defences against air attacks.

At Majdanek 500 German soldiers arrived during the night and surrounded the camp. When the prisoners were awoken at 05.00 on the 3^rd November 1943 it was still dark. Between 3,500 and 4,000 Jewish prisoners were mixed with non-Jewish prisoners. Following the roll call the prisoners were separated and the Jews were ordered to go to the trench area where they were forced to undress. In groups of 100 they were transported to the ramp of the trenches. In groups of ten the Jews were forced to lie down in the trenches and were shot in the nape of the neck by the waiting execution squads. Ten to twelve German SS Panzer or Police were members of the execution squads and were replaced every few hours.

Majdanek was part of the Lublin Reservation Concentration Camp complex and including the inmates of Majdanek over 18,000 Jews were murdered. Of the Jews being marched from the complex to Majdanek and despite being heavily guarded many prisoners rushed the guards and tried to escape. Almost all of them were shot before they could actually get away. Of the 23 successful escapees all were discovered and executed the following day. At Lublin airfield camp approximately 600 Jewish prisoners were selected to clean up the massacre at Majdanek.

At Trawniki approximately 6,000 Jews were executed. Prior to the event Polish residents living alongside the camp were forced to move. The Jews were mustered at 05.00 for roll-call, rounded up and marched to the trenches. They were ordered to undress, and place their clothes in piles. Firstly the men were ordered to lay on top of those already shot then they themselves were shot in the nape of the neck. The women and children were the last to be executed. The executions were carried out all day and approximately 15.00 the last murder ended.

At Poniatowa, on the 3^rd November 1943, the 14,800 Jews at the camp were sent back to their barracks after roll-call. Most of them had come from the Warsaw Ghetto. In the meantime, many of the SS and police soldiers travelled from Majdanek, once the executions were completed. They were assisted by additional police soldiers and by the following morning a force of 1,000 to 1,500 soldiers surrounded the camp. After the 04.30 roll-call on the 4^th November 1943 the prisoners were ordered to undress, hand over their clothes and valuables and walk to the trenches. Approximately 200 Jews were temporarily spared to clean up the mess after the massacre. In groups of 50, starting with the men, they were forced to lay down in the trench and shot in the nape of the neck. Two executioners were positioned along the trench and each were supplied with an assistant to reload their guns and a bottle of schnapps. The executions were halted for a for a lunch break at about 14.00 and the drunk executioners were relieved. Some prisoners had formed themselves into a resistance group and somehow acquired themselves some weapons. Apart from this group the massacre was finished by about 17.00. The resistance members had set fire to some barracks full of clothing at about 18.00 and barricaded themselves in another barracks. All the resistance members were killed when the Germans set fire to the barracks.

During the two days over 38,000 Jews were murdered. All those previously selected to clear up the mess of the massacre were either sent to the gas chambers at Auschwitz or shot. In all the three camps loud music had been played through loudspeakers to cover up the sound of gunfire.

(Eastern Front – Soviet Union)

One of the largest operations of the war was the Battle of Dnieper fought in Ukraine with the Soviet Union Army against the attacking German Army. The battle began on the 5^th August 1943 and ended on the 23^rd December 1943, and was another defeat for the Germans on the Eastern Front. With the Soviet Army having secured Dnipropetrovsk on the 25^th September 1943, their attention was focussed on relieving Kiev. The Second Battle of Kiev was split into two operations. The first was the Soviet offensive and the second was a defensive operation. The Soviets began the attack on the German defenders on the 3^rd November 1943 with massive numbers of armament units. Greatly out-numbered the defenders could do little to resist and by the 6^th November 1943 the Soviets had liberated Kiev. After two years of German occupation they were once more in possession of the city. Along the whole Eastern Front the Soviets had established a new front line north and south of Kiev following successful bridgeheads along the Dnieper River On the 13^th November 1943 the Soviets were forced into a defensive operation when the reinforced Germans began a counter-attack. Soviet forces had left a gap develop and the Germans were preparing to exploit the situation. On the 18^th November 1943, German tanks broke into Zhytomr, which is located west of Kiev. After a tank battle the Soviets were forced out leaving Zhytomr in German hands again. In order to counter-attack the Germans had to draw on the resources of the 8^th Army and were forced to halt when they were within 25 miles (40 km) of Kiev. The battle continued into the following month and ended on 23^rd December 1943.

(Mediterranean)                                                         

Vatican City, in the heart of Rome was bombed on the 5^th November 1943. During the Second World War the Vatican City was a neutral state. Italy had been part of the Axis Power with Germany until the Armistice with the Allies on the 8^th September 1943. After the armistice Italy was suffering under Nazi occupation. As a neutral state the bombing of the Vatican City came as a total surprise. An unidentified aircraft dropped five bombs onto the Vatican gardens. One bomb failed to detonate. Many buildings suffered huge damage. Fortunately no one was hurt but some of the guards were dazed after they were knocked to the ground by the explosions. It remains unclear who dropped the bombs on the Vatican City State as nobody claimed responsibility. The Allied and Axis powers accused each other. In an attempt to maintain the neutrality of the Vatican City State the Pope requested the bombing not be made public.

One of the last German victories of the war was during the Dodecanese Campaign with the fall of the island of Leros. On the morning of the 16^th November 1943, British Commander, Brigadier Robert Tilney, decided to surrender as his position was untenable. With the advancing Germans approaching his headquarters he surrendered at 17.30 hours. The joint Italian Commander Luigi Mascherpa also surrendered at 22.00 hours. Prior to the armistice with the Allies, Italy had occupied the Dodecanese chain of islands in the Aegean Sea. Following the armistice the Greek island of Leros was strengthened by British forces in September 1943. The Battle of Leros began on the 15^th September 1943. The Luftwaffe began attacking the airbase and docks from the 26^th September1943. With a maximum of 41 bombers and eight strikes daily during September, October and up to the 11^th November 1943 the attacks continued. A German invasion fleet landed troops on the island on the 12^th November 1943 and despite the defenders resistance by the 15^th November 1943 the British and Italian forces had been divided. On the 16th November 1943 the island defenders surrendered. During the campaign the British lost 600 killed, 100 wounded and 3,200 as POWs. They also lost 115 RAF aircraft and three Royal Naval destroyers. The Italians lost 254 killed or missing and 5,320 POWs. They also had eleven ships sunk including one destroyer. The Germans lost 512 killed, 900 wounded and at least five bombers.

In Egypt, the five day Cairo Conference began on the 22^nd November 1943 and ended on the 26^th November 1943. In attendance were three of the leaders of the Allied Powers. They were Winston Churchill for the UK, Franklin D. Roosevelt for the USA and Chiang Kai-shek for China. During the conference 14 separate meetings outlined the allied position against the Empire of Japan. Decisions were also made with regard to post-war Asia. The outcome was that the U.K, U.S.A. and China would launch a three-pronged attack against the Japanese. Burma was to be the major objective. The U.K. would undertake amphibious operations in southern Burma. The Chinese Expeditionary Force would amalgamate with the British/Indian troops to invade Burma. In addition Roosevelt verbally agreed to supply and air lift 12,000 tons of U.S. supplies to China. He also promised USAAF B-29 bombers would attack Japan from Chinese air bases. The Soviet Union did not attend the Cairo Conference as they had not declared war on Japan. When the Cairo Conference ended on the 26^th November 1943, Churchill and Roosevelt travelled to Tehran for the Tehran Conference. Chiang Kai-shek was not involved with the Tehran Conference.

(Pacific)

Codenamed Operation Goodtime the British flag was raised on the Japanese held island of Mono on the 1^st November 1943. The islands of Mono and Stirling form part of the Treasury Islands group in the Pacific. As part of the Solomon Islands Mono was selected to enable a radar station to be built. Stirling was to be the staging area for forthcoming attack on Bougainville and Rabaul. The invasion was conducted primarily by the New Zealand Army on the 27^th October 1943 and supported by American forces. Previously the New Zealanders had been assigned to the U.S. III Amphibious Force. Following a short naval bombardment by destroyers USS Philip and Pringle the New Zealanders landed around Falamai on the southern coast of Mono. Meanwhile troops also landed on Stirling Island. A total of 3,795 troops landed and encountered light resistance which was quickly overcome. Caught by surprise it was not until the troops had landed that the Japanese scrambled aircraft to attack the invaders. Later in the day 25 dive-bombers attacked two U.S. destroyers, USS Cony and Philip. Supporting U.S. aircraft shot down 12 Japanese dive-bombers. Cony suffered two hits losing eight of her crew killed and ten wounded. Cony was towed away for repairs. A total of 6,574 troops had been landed on the islands in order to capture them. Following the initial landings the remainder of the Allied forces landed in four separate waves during the next 20 days. The Japanese offered sporadic resistance mainly against Allied patrols who had been sent out to search for them. Virtually unopposed on Stirling Island the New Zealanders settled down to routine patrols and development of the new base. On the 1st December 1943 the British flag was raised in Mono’s capital city Falamai. Mopping up operations began and on the 12th December 1943 the islands were declared clear of Japanese forces. In the course of the battle the Allies lost 54 killed, 174 wounded and one destroyer damaged. Twelve Japanese dive-bombers were lost together with 223 troops killed and a further eight taken prisoner.

As part of the Solomon and New Guinea Campaigns the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay was fought on the 2^nd November 1943. It was a naval battle between the U.S. and Japanese navies. U.S. marines had landed at Empress Augusta Bay on Bougainville on the 1^st November 1943.The marines were backed up by four light cruisers and eight destroyers of U.S. Task Force 39. From Japanese held Rabaul the Japanese responded with an air attack by 100 aircraft. A powerful naval force of two heavy cruisers, two light cruisers and six destroyers were also despatched. The U.S. opposition force consisted of four light cruisers and eight destroyers. Meanwhile, U.S. reconnaissance aircraft had detected the Japanese fleet and the navy began steaming north from Vella Lavella to intercept. In the early hours of the 2^nd November 1943 the Americans blocked the entrance to Empress Augusta Bay. The Japanese fleet suffered a significant reduction in speed following a U.S. air attack on a heavy cruiser. U.S. radar contact was made about 02:30 and American Rear Admiral Aaron S. Merrrill ordered the ships into three columns. Both sides fired a salvo of torpedoes towards the enemy, which the U.S. destroyers were able to avoid. In the confusion of the battle in the dark the Japanese fleet became separated and out of formation. One U.S. destroyer was separated from their group and was in danger of colliding with other ships. At about 02:50 U.S. cruisers opened fire on the Japanese fleet. A Japanese light cruiserwas disabled when her rudder jammed. Two Japanese destroyers collided and were forced to retire from the battle. A Japanese heavy cruiseralso collided with a destroyerand both ships received significant damage from the collision. Two U.S. destroyers also collided but were able to continue in the battle. In the early morning Japanese shellfire became increasingly heavy and accurate. The American cruisers hid behind a smoke-screen successfully interfering with the Japanese gunnery. Several times the U.S. destroyers came close to firing on friendly ships. Believing he had sunk a U.S. cruiser Japanese Admiral Sentaro Omari ordered a retreat. In response, U.S. light cruisersclosed on the Japanese forces withdrawing to the west. Around 04:00 U.S. destroyers engaged the retreating Japanese stragglers and one damaged cruiser was sunk. OneU.S. destroyer had a fuel problem and fell out of formation and was fired on in error from U.S. fleet but suffered no damage. At 05:19 the damaged Japanese destroyer exploded and sank. At daybreak both navies retired, the Japanese back to Rabaul and the U.S. to rendezvous withthe damaged destroyer. Over 100 Japanese aircraft were launched from Rabaul and converged on the U.S. ships. They suffered heavy losses from shore based U.S. and New Zealand aircraft. However, the Japanese did score two hits on one cruiser which suffered nine wounded sailors. The battle was a complete victory for the U.S. navy and was one of the last naval actions of the Solomon Islands Campaign. Japanese losses ranged from 198 to 658 killed, and up to 25 aircraft shot down. They had one heavy cruiser and one destroyer sunk. Damage to the ships were one heavy cruiser, one light cruiser and two destroyers. For the loss of 19 men killed and 26 wounded and three damaged ships the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay was a resounding success for the U.S. Navy. When a Japanese submarine was subsequently sent out to look for survivors only some from the sunk destroyer were found. On the 5^th November 1943 two U.S. aircraft carriers raided Rabaul inflicting heavy damages to four heavy cruisers. Aircraft attacks were also conducted against Rabaul on the 11^th and 25^th November 1943.  For further information on the battle see the essay on the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay.

The Battle of Tarawa was the beginning of the U.S. “island-hopping” campaign in the Central Pacific. The battle would last for three days beginning on the 20^th and ending on the 22^nd November 1943.

The key to success, the U.S. commanders considered, was for the Tarawa Atoll to be the first target for an amphibious attack. The small island of Betio in the Tarawa Atoll is located north of Papua New Guinea and the 4,500 Japanese defenders were very well supplied and prepared for an invasion. Long, thin and triangular shaped Betio is about 2 miles (3.2 km) long by 800 yds. (730m) at the widest part. A total of fourteen coastal defence guns in concrete bunkers were located around the perimeter of the island near the coast. Four of these were equipped with 8” guns. In addition there were approximately 500 pillboxes which housed machine gun crews. On the 20^th November 1943, a total of 35,000 American marines and troops had been assembled for the invasion. Including all their landing craft and fighting equipment, they were transported on 36 ships. Escorting the transport ships were 17 aircraft carriers, 12 battle ships, 8 heavy cruisers, 4 light cruisers and 66 destroyers. In the early hours of the 20^th November 1943 as the invading fleet was approaching the beaches, the Japanese opened fire with their 8” guns. Two battleships, USS Colorado and USS Maryland retaliated with their 16” guns. Three of the four Japanese 8” guns were quickly destroyed, one having been blown up when a 16” shell penetrated an ammunition store. With the fourth Japanese gun only firing intermittently and inaccurately, the approaches to the landing beaches were open. At about 09.00 the naval bombardment was lifted with most of the island ablaze. When the first marines attempted to land they were met by a hail of bullets from the defenders. Low tides had not allow sufficient depth of water above the coral and the landing craft ran aground on the reefs. The marines had to wade ashore after being stranded and they were gunned down in their hundreds by the defenders in the pillboxes. By the end of the first day they had only advanced 200 yds. from the waterline, so heavy was the fighting. Over the next two days, every yard of the island had to be fought for with flamethrowers, grenades and small arms. Resisting them were an enemy who were determined to die, and die they did. By 22^nd November 1943, at the end of the battle on Betia Island, 5,500 men had died. More than a thousand U.S. Marines were amongst those killed alongside the 2,000 wounded. Of the Japanese, all were killed except for one officer and 16 other ranks. Nobody in the U.S. military had expected such a murderous resistance from such a small island, which was to serve as a warning for future “island-hopping” invasions.

The Battle of Cape St George was a naval battle of the Pacific Campaign and was fought on the 25^th November 1943. It proved to be the last engagement of surface ships between the U.S. and Japanese navies in the Solomon Islands campaign. Five Japanese destroyers were withdrawing from Baku Island, north of Bougainville, on the 25^th November 1943. They were heading for Rabaul in Papua New Guinea as they were aware of the U.S. “island-hopping” campaign and that Baku Island was the next objective. The Japanese convoy was spotted by U.S. reconnaissance aircraft and the U.S. navy ordered five destroyers to intercept. Meanwhile nine PT boats moved into the Baku passage. They were to engage the Japanese destroyers should the U.S. destroyers be unable to make contact. The battle plan for the Japanese was to divide the ships into two columns. The leading first column which consisted of two escort destroyers followed by three transport destroyers, who had recently landed reinforcements on Baku Island. Similarly the Americans split their forces into two groups. One group took a supporting role while the other group made a torpedo attack against the Japanese. Once the torpedoes had struck the enemy the supporting destroyers would open up with gunfire. Whilst the Japanese ships were withdrawing to Rabaul, the PT boats spotted them on radar and as it was around midnight mistook them for friendly ships. However, two Japanese ships fired on the PT boats and one destroyer attempted to ram one of the PT boats. The destroyers failed to hit any targets, as did a torpedo fired from a PT boat at the enemy. In the meantime the U.S. ships had moved into position off Cape St. George awaiting the Japanese ships. At around 01:41 am the two Japanese escort destroyers were picked up on radar by the Americans. Superior radar and poor visibility allowed the U.S. ships to approach to within 5,500 yards (5,000 m) before the Japanese were aware they were there. U.S. torpedoes were launched and several hit Japanese Onami which sank immediately with all hands. Makinami was also hit by one torpedo and disabled. Shortly after the U.S. escort destroyers launched their torpedoes they established radar contact with the rest of the Japanese destroyers. At 13,000 yards (12,000 m) range the Americans turned to pursue the Japanese transport destroyers who had fled north. Two U.S. destroyers USS Converse and USS Spence sank the disabled Makinam with torpedoes and gunfire. The retreating three Japanese fired torpedoes at the chasing Americans and the torpedoes exploded harmlessly in the wake of the U.S. ships. The Americans opened fire on the enemy and scored several hits. Japanese destroyer Uzuki was hit by one dud shell and suffered minimal damage. Amagiri escaped untouched. All five U.S. destroyers pursued Yugari and after a long fierce engagement she sank about 03:20 am. Fearing an aircraft attack at daybreak the Americans called off any further pursuit. The battle represented a total victory for the Americans who did not suffer any losses or casualties. For the Japanese, out of five destroyers, three were sunk, one was damaged and one escaped. They also lost a total of 647 crew and replacement Baku troops. A total of 290 survivors from destroyer Yugari were rescued by two Japanese submarines.

Japanese submarine 1-176 was ordered to Truk during the New Guinea campaign in November 1943 but her instructions were intercepted by U.S. signals intelligence. On the 16^th November 1943 U.S. intelligence also intercepted another message from 1-176 that they had “Received direct torpedo hit en route to Truk, no damage”. The attack was assumed to be by an American submarine and 1-176 had not been damaged most likely due to a defective torpedo. Japanese records report that 1-176 launched three torpedoes at an enemy submarine claiming two hits resulting in an explosion of the target. It has been assumed the American submarine was USS Corvina. She was on her maiden war patrol and departed Pearl Harbour on the 4^th November 1943. She was never heard from again after topping up her fuel tanks at Johnson Island two days later. Corvina was the only American submarine sunk by a Japanese submarine in the entire war. The loss of Corvina and her 82 man crew was announced on the 14^th March 1944.

South East Asia Command (SEAC) was formed by the Allies during November 1943. SEAC replaced India Command, which had been in force, after the fall of Burma in 1942. The new commander of SEAC was British Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten. Under his command the war in Burma took on a new energy. The new policy was for British troops to stand firm and be supplied by air when cut off and fight on during the monsoon period. The Allied Burma Campaign began during January 1944.

(Other Theatres)

French General Charles de Gaule became President of the French Committee of National Liberation on the 9^th November 1943. The Committee was formed on the 3^rd June 1943, in Algiers the capital of French Algeria, which became a provisional government of Free France. Prior to becoming president de Gaule had shared joint leadership with General Henri Giraud. When the invasion of Normandy began in June 1944 the Committee moved its headquarters to London.

The Belgian Resistance published a spoof issue of the newspaper Le Soir on the 9^th November 1943. The resistance group of Front de l’indépendance (FI) produced 50,000 copies of the newspaper which was known as Faux Soir or Fake Soir. In German-occupied Belgium Faux Soir was published in a satirical style that ridiculed German propaganda. When the Germans invaded Belgium in May 1940, the Belgian newspaper Le Soir [evening] ceased to appear. However, collaborationist journalists relaunched the newspaper with German approval a few days later. Whilst editing an article planned for the 11^th November 1943, Marc Aubrion came up with the idea for Faux Soir. As the 11^th November1943 was the 25^th anniversary of the German defeat in the Great War, the idea was to publish and distribute a fake issue of Le Soir. Aubrion shared his idea with the head of the press of the FI and they quickly put in place the steps to publish on the 9^th November 1943. Overcoming the surveillance of the printing of Faux Soir the 50,000 copies were distributed on the 9^th November 1943. The printers also produced the correct Le Soir, which should normally have been available at 16.00 on the day. The plan was to delay this delivery in order that the 50,000 copies of Faux Soir was available first. With these copies was a note saying further copies would follow later. 500 kiosks each selling 100 newspapers were quickly sold out without events. Some salesmen were in disbelief when the real Le Soir Le arrived at the kiosks. Some outlets stopped selling Faux Soir after being spooked and some others offered their buyers a choice. Real or fake. The Germans were highly offended by the satirical propaganda and summoned the Gestapo to investigate. Ultimately the press machinery was identified from which Faux Soir was printed. About fifteen people were arrested and sentenced to imprisonment ranging from four months to five years. Sometime later Aubrion was arrested, sentenced to death, which was commuted to fifteen years imprisonment.

In Norway, the Heavy Water Plant at Vemurk (Telemark), was attacked by USAAF bombers on the 16^th & 18^th November 1943. During a daylight raid 143 American B-17 heavy bombers were used in the attack. 600 of the 711 bombs failed to hit the target, owing to the difficult terrain. The bombs that did hit the target caused extensive damage.

The hydro-electric power plant at Rjukan in Norway was also attacked by 35 USAAF B-24 heavy bombers on the 16^th & 18^th November 1943. These two attacks of 9½ & 10½ hours respectively were the only alternative to ground force attacks.

The heavy water power plants were built in the 1930s. Heavy water was an essential element in the development of nuclear fusion. When Nazi Germany invaded Sweden and Norway, in April 1940, they took advantage of all these facilities. The German scientists were attempting to develop nuclear weapons. The Allies became aware of the German intent during early 1943. They launched a series of land sabotage attacks by the Norwegian resistance and Special Operations Executive (SOE) against the defenders.

Prior to the attack on Vemurk (Telemark) Operation Gunnerside was considered a success. SOE-trained Norwegian commandoes had destroyed the production capacity for a couple of months in February 1943. Further commando raids were considered by SOE to be extremely difficult as the Germans would have greatly improved security arrangements.

Following the bombing air attacks the Germans were convinced the air raids would result in further serious damage. Their solution was to abandon the plant and move the remaining stocks and critical plant to Germany in 1944. 

The Tehran Conference was held in the Soviet Union’s embassy in Tehran in Iran from the 28^th November to 1^st December 1943. The conference was attended by the “Big Three” Allied leaders of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States of America. The leaders were Winston Churchill for the UK, Joseph Stalin for the SU and Franklin D. Roosevelt for the USA. Churchill and Roosevelt had previously attended the Cairo Conference which was held from the 22^nd/26^th November 1943. They had travelled to Tehran directly from Cairo. Stalin had not attended the Cairo Conference as the SU had not declared war with Japan. British and American delegates had previously agreed to support the Soviets on the Eastern Front but were not prepared to give Stalin a free hand on the Eastern Front. Stalin had been advocating a second front to take the pressure off the Eastern Front since 1941. The outcome of the Tehran Conference was the Allies would open up a second front against Nazi Germany by June 1944.

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