(Britain)
Operation Gomorrah was the code name for one of the largest bombing raids on Hamburg beginning on the 24th July 1943 and lasting 8 days and 7 nights. Hamburg was selected as a target because it was Germany’s second largest city. It also had an industrial area, which included shipyards, U-boat pens and oil refineries. RAF Bomber Command and United States Army Air Force (USAAF) created one of the largest firestorms of the Second World War which mostly destroyed the city. The plan was for the RAF attacking by night and the USAAF attacking by day. To achieve the firestorm incendiary bombs were developed as the British realised the effectiveness during the “Blitz of London” in 1941. The weather was clear on the 24th July 1943 when the British first attacked using H2S radar navigation. To help confuse German radar strips of aluminium foil “chaff” was dropped. During Operation Gomorrah approximately 3,000 aircraft dropped 9,000 tons of bombs on the city with an estimated 34,000 deaths of German inhabitants. A large portion, approximately 61%, of the housing stock was destroyed or damaged and over one million people evacuated the city. These raids inflicted severe damage on the German armament production in Hamburg. The final raid of Operation Gomorrah was on the 3rd August 1943. It has not been possible to establish the Allied losses.
(Germany)
When presented with further development of the V2 rocket programme on the 7th July 1943, German Fuhrer Adolf Hitler approved. He was enthusiastic after watching a coloured film showing the rocket being launched. Shortly after he personally informed Wernher von Braun that he was to become a professor and a leading figure in the development of rocket technology. Von Braun was a German aerospace engineer who joined the Nazi Party in 1937. When he awarded a doctorate in physics in 1934 he wrote a thesis about liquid rocket propellant and began working at the solid-fuel rocket test site at Kummersdorf. In December 1942 Hitler ordered the production of a vengeance weapon against the British. The project was developed to target London in retaliation for the bombing campaign against Germany. Twenty one months later, after being officially commissioned, on the 7th September 1944, the first V2 rocket was launched against London.
(Eastern Front)
The Battle of Kursk began on the 5th July 1943 and was fought between the armies of the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. When the Germans launched Operation Citadel, Kursk was extending into territory held by
the Germans thus forming a salient. The German intention was to attack from the north and the south sides simultaneously. By the 11th/12th July 1943 the northern sector had stalled at the Battle of Prokhorovka.
On the 12th July 1943 the Soviets launched a counter-attack which ultimately became the largest tank battle of the war and subsequent history. In the south Soviet tanks had been forced back to their original positions by the German SS Panzer Divisions. The Soviet tank army nor the Nazi SS Panzer Corps never achieved their objectives but the German breakthrough was averted. On the 9th/10th July 1943 the Allies invaded Sicily with the threat of further allied landings in Italy and France. Vichy France convinced Hitler to stop the Kursk offensive and move the eastern front troops into Italy.
On the 17th July 1943 Hitler ordered the SS Panzer Division to cease its offensive and withdraw. The Soviet tank forces soon began planning for a massive counter offensive once the Germans had completed their withdrawal. The German strength during the Battle of Kursk was over 940,000 men, over 3,000 tanks, nearly 10,000 guns and mortars and over 2,000 aircraft. Of the attacking force over 150,000 men were killed, wounded or missing. An estimated 760 to 1,200 tanks and assault guns were destroyed, also 680 aircraft were lost. On the Soviet side their strength was 2,500,000 men, over 7,000 tanks, 4,700 guns and mortars plus nearly 2,800 aircraft. Of these nearly 900,000 men were either killed, wounded, missing or taken prisoner. Over 6,000 tanks and assault guns were either destroyed or severely damaged and over 2,000 aircraft lost.
(Mediterranean)
In the village of Liaskovo in Bulgaria the National Bands Agreement was signed on the 5th July1943. This agreement was between the British military mission to occupied Greece and the three main Greek Resistance organisations. Greece at the time was occupied by Italy, Germany and Bulgaria. When negotiations began in March 1943 it was an attempt to avoid clashes between the various resistance groups, which had previously happened. Once the agreement was signed the various groups failed to co-ordinate their guerrilla movements. By October 1943 the agreement ended when the groups began to clash again. Each individual organisation looted for its own benefit the Italian stores of equipment and munitions following the Italian capitulation in September 1943.
Operation Husky was the code name for the Allied Invasion of Sicily. The invasion was a joint amphibious and airborne attack which began on the 9th/10th July 1943. Following the defeat of the German/Italian armies in Tunisia the Axis Powers were expecting an invasion of mainland Europe. To confuse the enemy the Allies began a deceptive bombing campaign against Sardinia, Sicily and southern Italy. However, the most successful deception was the British Operation Mincemeat. Britain had released a corpse dressed as an officer who was washed up on the beach of Spain. With him he was carrying false details of the invasion of Greece and Sardinia. Consequently the Germans reinforced that area but not Sicily. Sicily was defended by 200,000 Italian troops, 32,000 German troops and 30,000 Luftwaffe ground staff. The Germans also had 160 tanks at their disposal. They had to defend 105 miles (170 km) of coastline with 26 possible invasion beaches. The amphibious attack was a bit of an anti-climax as the defenders were unprepared. Owing to strong winds the Italian defenders were virtually non-existent as they had not been expecting an attack. Difficult weather conditions, especially on the American southern beaches, created more trouble as many troops landed in the wrong place. However, the weakness of the Italian defensive response allowed the Allies to regroup. By the 10th July 1943 the seven Allied assault divisions were firmly established ashore and the eastern port of Syracuse had been captured. The expected Axis air onslaught had proved unfounded, following the preparatory bombing campaign by the Allies in the previous week. Several Italian coastal defenders fought well and inflicted considerable Allied casualties. When the airborne assault began just after midnight on the 10th/11th July 1943 two British and two American armys airborne troops were involved by separately attacking Sicily. Strong winds of up to 45mph (70 km/h) blew the Americans off course and by the 14th July 1943 many failed to reach their rallying point. Of the 147 gliders carrying British troops only 12 landed on target. Creating confusion wherever possible the scattered British troops were able to make contact with a platoon of the 2nd Battalion of the South Staffordshire Regiment, who had landed on target. The South Staffs had captured Ponte Grande and repulsed counter-attacks and when the scattered paratroopers made contact there were 89 men to hold the bridge at 8.30 am. A battalion of Italian Infantry Regiment arrived with artillery support at 11.30am. The British managed to hold the position until about 3.30pm when they were forced to surrender. By this time they were down to 18 men and running short of ammunition. Despite all the mishaps of the airborne attack, confusion was created to the Italians by both British and American troops acting in isolated groups, and attacked vital points on the island. The Allied bombing campaign had left the Axis air force in a weakened position. Operating from Malta allied aircraft kept most of the Axis attempts for any air attacks at bay. On the 16th July 1943 the remaining Italian aircraft withdrew to the mainland after losing 160 aircraft during the assault. Many attacks and counter-attacks from both sides occurred which resulted in many successes and defeats during the remainder of the campaign. However, on the 22nd July 1943, the American Provisional Corps entered and captured the northern port of Palermo. Operation Husky would continue into August 1943.
For further details see separate essay on the Allied Invasion of Sicily.
Italy’s Fascist Dictator Benito Mussolini was relieved of office and arrested by the express order of King Victor Emmanuel III on the 25th July 1943. Dictator of Italy since December 1925 Mussolini had complete control over Italy and could only be removed by the King. Italy entered the war in June 1940 and became part of the Axis forces. When the Axis troops were defeated in the North African Campaign, Italy’s military position became desperate. As early as April 1943 Mussolini had urged Hitler to make a separate peace with the Soviet Union. This would allow Germany to send troops to re-inforce the defence of Italy. Hitler did not respond until the 19th July 1943 when Mussolini was summoned to Feltre in northern Italy. Rome was bombed by the Allies on the 19th July 1943 , Mussolini was sickened by Hitler’s boasting and accepted the fact the Axis Powers were losing the war. Although Dictator, Mussolini was also Prime Minister of Italy. When he announced to his government that Germany was thinking of evacuating southern Italy, some prominent members turned against him. The government met on the 24th July 1943 and the vote of 19-8 margin was a vote of no-confidence, but Mussolini ignored it. He thought the government was an advisory body only, but they recommended to the King the removal of Mussolini. King Victor Emmanuel had already decided to sack him and summoned him to the Grand Palace on the 25th July 1943. He was dismissed but was guaranteed his safety, and upon leaving the palace was arrested by the palace police by orders of the King. The police transported him to safety in a Red Cross Ambulance car. He was detained on an isolated mountain resort of Abruzzo. When the news was broadcast on the radio the people thought the war was over, such was the discontent with Mussolini. In the meantime, the King had appointed Marshall Pietro Badolio as Prime Minster who kept up the appearance of loyalty to the Germans and Italy would keep fighting. However, he dissolved the Fascist Party and began negotiating with the Allies on the 27th July 1943. Eventually Mussolini was rescued by German S.S. troops on the 12th September 1943.
(Pacific)
In the Solomon Islands on the 6th July 1943 the naval Battle of Kula Gulf was fought between the ships of the United States and Japanese off the Kolombangara eastern coast. The Solomon Islands consist of individual islands with waterways between them each having individual names. American intelligence had been informed that a “Tokyo Express” was proceeding along “The Slot”, which is the main waterway between the islands. The “Tokyo Express” consisted of ten Imperial Japanese destroyers, seven of which carried 2,600 infantry. The remaining three were escort destroyers. Their destination was Vila airstrip on Kolombangara Island. In the meantime, the Allies launched an offensive on the Solomon Islands on the 30th June 1943 by landing on Rendova Island. Once established U.S. troops crossed the Blanche Channel to land on the southern coast of New Georgia Island on the 2nd July 1943. Their destination was the Japanese held Munda airstrip. On the night before the battle, three light cruisers of the U.S. navy conducted a bombardment of Vila on Kolombangara and Bairoko Harbour on New Georgia. The bombardment was to support American troops who had landed at Rice Anchorage on the northern coast of New Georgia. At the same time two American destroyers had entered Bairoko Harbour to provide additional fire power to the bombardment. USS Strong spotted a closing torpedo which struck her portside and putting her out of action. The torpedo attack caused the loss of 46 sailors but 241 survivors were picked-up by the second destroyer. The torpedo which caused the damage was a long range torpedo fired as part of a salvo from 11 miles (20 km) distance and not by the assumed submarine.
Rear Admiral Walden Ainsworth had been ordered to intercept the Japanese “Tokyo Express” on the afternoon of the 5th July 1943. In addition to the three light cruisers who had bombarded Vila and Bairoko Harbour, Ainsworth had four destroyers as his remaining task group. Two of the destroyers that had entered Bairoko Harbour had been replaced and the task force began to search for the “Tokyo Express”. The Japanese forces had been divided into two groups and when the battle began three destroyers were unloading 1,600 troops and 90 tons of supplies at Vila as part of the first group. The three Japanese escort destroyers of the second group were the first to be engaged after Ainsworth had located them on radar. After a twenty minute salvo of over 600 shells Japanese destroyer Niizuki was sunk andAdmiral Akiyama killed. During the salvo USS Helena had expended all her flash-less powder and was forced to use smoke-less powder, thereby illuminating herself with every shell fired. Two Japanese destroyers fired torpedoes which hit and fatally damaged Helena. Following the first engagement the main second Japanese group of seven destroyers broke away behind a smokescreen. During this period Japanese destroyer Magatsuki was hit by a 6 inch U.S. shell and ran aground near Bambiri Harbour on Kolombangara. Her crew abandoned her and the ship was later destroyed by U.S. aircraft. Japanese destroyer Hatsuyuki was also hit and slightly damaged by two shells which failed to explode. Around 3.3O am Ainsworth began to retire toward Tulagi the Central Province of the Solomon Islands. In the meantime the Japanese headed toward Buin, Papua New Guinea. Two U.S. destroyers USS Radford and USS O’Bannan remained to rescue 750 crew members from Helena. Japanese troop carrying destroyer Amagiri also remained to pick up any survivors. Whilst withdrawing round about 5.00 am Amagiri and U.S. destroyer USS Nicholas exchanged torpedoes and gunfire. Although hit four times by gunfire Amagiri withdrew. Of the first Japanese group unloading at Vila two of the three destroyers departed through the Blackett Straight leaving Mochizuki to linger for an hour. When she departed around 6.15 am she briefly clashed with Nicholas before withdrawing behind a smokescreen through the Kula Gulf. American losses during the battle amounted to one light cruiser sunk and 168 sailors killed, 122 from USS Helena and46from USS Strong. For the Japanese they had two destroyers sunk and a further two damaged and 324 men killed including Admiral Akiyama.
Despite the Japanese losses at the Battle of Kula Gulf, they continued to send reinforcements to New Guinea. The naval Battle of Kolombangara was fought on the night of the 12th/13th July 1943 off its north east coast. To counter the Allied landings on New Georgia, and to reinforce their southern flank around Rabaul, the Japanese sent another “Tokyo Express”. One light cruiser, five destroyers and four troop carrying destroyers transporting 1.200 soldiers formed the “Tokyo Express”.
Allied coast-watchers detected the movement of the “Tokyo Express” along the waterway of Kula Gulf and Admiral Ainsworth was again ordered to intercept the Japanese ships. Designated Task Force 18, it consisted of two U.S. light cruisers, one New Zealand light cruiser and ten U.S. destroyers. The New Zealand cruiser HMNZS Leander was a direct replacement for the loss of USS Helena during the Battle of Kula Gulf. Ainsworth’s mission was to prevent the Japanese from landing troops on Kolombangara and stem the flow of reinforcements to Munda airstrip on New Georgia. Ainsworth’s battle formation was five destroyers in front, followed by the three cruisers and five destroyers in the rear. Sailing from Tulagi on the evening of the 12th July 1943 they encountered clear skies and calm seas. Ainsworth steered a course to avoid being spotted by Japanese reconnaissance aircraft. Being advised by Allied aircraft that “Tokyo Express” was about 26 miles (42 km) away, Ainsworth again altered course toward Visu Visu on the northern coastline of New Georgia. By increasing speed the Task Force established radar contact at about 20 miles (32 km) at approximately 1.00 am on the 13th July 1943. Ainsworth was aware the Japanese did not have radar and assumed he could engage with the enemy by surprise. The Japanese, however, had the ability to detect the electric impulses of the U.S. radar system. As a consequence the Japanese were expecting an attack and launched a salvo of long range torpedoes prior to the leading Allied destroyers launching their torpedoes. After the launching of the torpedoes the “Tokyo Express” turned away to regroup. At a range of 10,000 yards (9,100 m), Japanese light cruiser Jintsu turned on her searchlight and engaged with Allied destroyer USS Nicholas. Subjected to heavy shellfire Jintsu lost her steerage and came to a dead stop. A number of Allied torpedoes hit Jintsu and she sank with the loss of nearly all her crew. Rear Admiral Shunji Isaki was one of those who died. Leander suffered radio communication damage in the exchange of shellfire. In the meantime several Japanese torpedoes were spotted and the Allied ships took evasive action. Visibility was reduced by thick gun-smoke and several ships turned to avoid collision. During this manoeuvre, with the loss of radio communications, Leander was hit by a Japanese torpedo and severely damaged. She retired from the battle escorted by two U.S. destroyers. During the course of the battle confusion, Allied reconnaissance informed Ainsworth the Japanese destroyers were withdrawing north along the Kula Gulf and the troop carrying destroyers were withdrawing along the Kolombangara coastline. In the confusion this enabled all the Japanese destroyers to reload their torpedoes. Ainsworth was uncertain which ships were friendly and which were the enemy when the radar was re-established. The whole battle location was illuminated when star-shells were fired which showed the enemy withdrawing. Manoeuvring to starboard as planned the U.S. light cruisers main gun batteries were employed, but they sailed into the path of the Japanese first torpedo salvo. Two light cruisers USS St. Louis and USS Honolulu were hit by torpedoes, but although damaged they were still able to continue the battle. Heavy damage was inflicted on destroyer USS Gwin and with the loss of 61 sailors killed following the torpedo attack. Eventually Gwin was scuttled and the surviving crew were rescued by destroyer USS Ralph Talbot. Following the battle, Ainsworth requested Allied air support for his withdrawal to Tulagi. 1,200 Japanese troops were landed on the western shore of Kolombangara. With exception of the loss of Jintsu and 482 men killed, the remaining Japanese ships escaped any damage or troop losses. The Americans had one destroyer sunk, three light cruisers damaged, one of which was badly damaged, and 89 sailors killed. Technically the Japanese were the victors. However, that was about to change as they continued their nightly attacks during the remainder of July into August 1943.
(Other Theatres)
Exiled Polish General Wladyslaw Sikorski was killed on the 4th July1943. His Liberator aircraft crashed into the sea 16 seconds after take-off from Gibraltar Airport. Sikorski was a Polish military and political leader who reached the rank of Lieutenant General. His political career began in 1921 when he was appointed Chief of the Polish General Staff. Following the assassination of the President of Poland Gabriel Narutowicz in December 1922, Sikorski was appointed the 19th Prime Minister of Poland. His tenure as Prime Minister ended in May 1923 when the government resigned. The resignation followed Jozef Pitsudski’s coup and the installation of the semi-dictatorial Sanacja government. Whilst serving as Prime Minister he was popular with the Polish public. He also gained the approval of the League of Nations for carrying out essential reforms and guiding the country’s foreign policy, especially the tightening of Polish/French cooperation. The reforms were curtailing inflation, reformation of the currency and supporting ethnic minorities. Whilst serving as Prime Minister, Sikorski was still a member of the military. Between 1924 &1925 he was appointed the Minister of Military Affairs who activated the modernisation of the Polish military. He also worked hard at promoting an alliance between the Polish and French military. From 1925 to 1928 he commanded the Military Corp District VI in Lwow. In 1926, as a democrat and supporter of the Sejm (lower house of parliament of Poland) he declared his opposition to the Sanacja government. He remained in Lwow and did not play any significant role until he was finally relieved of his command by Pitsudski in 1928. In due course he joined the anti-Pitsudski opposition group and largely withdrew from politics. He spent much of his time writing books on military affairs or in Paris working with the French war college. In 1929 he joined the ‘Front Morges’, an anti-Sanacja political group, along with several other prominent Polish politicians. Prior to and during the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 Sikorski’s request for a military command was denied by the Polish commander-in-chief Marshall Rydz-Smigly. Knowing his services were not required in Poland, he escaped through Romania to Paris. On the 28th September 1939 he joined two other politicians as a Polish government -in-exile. He took command of the newly formed Polish Armed Forces in France. Polish President Wladyslaw Raczkiewicz requested he serve as the first Polish prime minister-in-exile on the 30th September 1939. He also became commander-in-chief and Polish Minister of Military Affairs from the 7th November 1939. During his time as prime minister in exile his government was recognised by the Western Allies. He struggled to secure resources needed to create the Polish Army in exile. In June 1940 Sikorski met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and promised that Polish forces would fight alongside the British until final victory following the fall of France. Sikorski and his government moved to London where the Polish forces formed one of the most significant squadrons of the RAF. Polish pilots distinguished themselves during the Battle of Britain. He visited many Allied countries, in the diplomatic field, to advance the Polish cause. In late May 1943 Sikorski began visiting Polish forces in the Middle East. On the 4th July1943 he was returning from such a visit when he was killed, alongside his daughter, his chief of staff and seven others. His Liberator aircraft crashed into the sea 16 seconds after take-off from Gibraltar Airport. The pilot survived the crash which was attributed to cargo shifting to the back during take-off.
America had been trying to obtain a long-range bomber with the capability of flying from Hawaii and back to attack the Japanese in the Pacific theatre. On the 23rd July 1943 the USAAF ordered 100 of the undeveloped Convair B-36 Peacemaker bombers. The specification was for a range of 10,000 miles (16,000 km) and pay-load of 10,000 lb (4,000 kg) and cruising height of 25,000 ft. Even before the U.S. entered the war the B-36 concept was foreseen. By ordering the aircraft, development was increased but unfortunately by the time the B-36 was ready the war had ended. However, the U.S. did have the Boeing B-29 “Superfortress” and B-17 “Flying Fortress” heavy bombers but they did not have the ability for long range.
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The Bay Museum & Research Facility 